Future publications in the series

Lykos - The Wolf

Lykourgos - creator of the new order or mythical wolf-man?

I chose the name ‘Lykos’, partly as a nod towards Lykourgos (Lycurgus in modern spelling) the man who supposedly founded the system by which Spartans lived in the 5th Century BCE. In fact nothing for certain is known about him and many modern scholars doubt he existed at all! The name in Greek means ‘wolf-worker’ or possibly ‘someone who holds back wolves’ and it has been claimed that this name shows his quasi-religious or mythic roots. (The man-wolf had a long tradition in Greek folklore particularly in the northern Peloponnese.) One way or another, it seemed appropriate that my hero’s name should be an echo of this legendary figure so strongly associated with Sparta.

The Wolf-Pack Mentality 

I also chose the name as it seemed to fit my protagonist’s ambiguous situation.

Spartan elite male society was divided common messes (syssitia), fifteen or so members in each, living and sharing their food together. They probably fought alongside each other, as well as hunting together for recreation. The broad parallels with the communal behaviour of a wolf pack are obvious.

Lykos spends his boyhood in a similar pack of ‘cubs’ and feels destined to join an adult group in due course.  As a member of the pack he tries to conform but also to excel according to the shared understanding of what it means to be a Spartan elite warrior.

There is, however, a crucial difference between the Spartan mess and an actual wolf pack. A wolf pack is an extended family unit, including the young and the infirm, dominated by a breeding pair. The Spartan mess on the other hand, was a highly artificial construct of adult men only. This created a strong sense of solidarity and shared identity within the group but it must also have been conservative and inward looking.

The Lone Wolf

Unfortunately for Lykos, Spartan packs were exclusive, not inclusive and there was no place for the weak or disabled so that if he is not accepted into a mess,  Lykos must face the possibility of being a ‘lone wolf’, with all the modern connotations that the term implies - self-sufficiency and independence certainly, but also isolation and a loss of social identity.

In practical terms he would have to become one of the underclass of ‘inferiors’ or seek a new life outside Sparta altogether. Either choice would involve humiliation and a profound sense of shame. However, there is another side to this. By becoming an outsider he is freed from the rigid constraints of his upbringing and life within a mess. He can begin to gain a wider perspective of the world around him. For better or worse, he learns to see things differently.

Problems with the sources

“I am acutely aware that, so far, I have not given a description of the Spartan system of education; we know too little about the subject even to imagine being able to do this successfully.” 

So writes Jean Ducat in chapter 3 of his book Spartan Education: Youth & Society in the Classical Period.¹ Yet if you do a little research on the internet, it won’t take you long to find lots of detailed information about how it all worked. How can this be?

Well, essentially, the problem is that descriptions of the Spartan system mostly come from sources written long after the Classical period, and may actually be describing something that evolved when Sparta was already well into its decline. Imagine writing a story about a school in the 19th Century based on information about a 21st Century Comprehensive School - computers instead of quill pens, counselling instead of corporal punishment and science instead of lots and lots of Latin and Greek!

Of course, the process of evolution was likely to have been slower than that of education in modern times and it was certainly true that other Greeks were aware of the unusual nature of the Spartan educational system long before the period in which I have set my story. Therefore for the purposes of my book I have supposed that, broadly speaking, the system in the 5th Century BCE was the one described  by these later sources; that boys left their homes at the age of seven and lived communally, under the immediate supervision of older boys, with a ‘paidonomos’ appointed by the state in overall control.

A Broad Education

History has its fashions like anything else, and there has been a move away from viewing Spartan education as purely militaristic but rather as a more balanced social training. This makes sense. If nothing else, there is only so much drill you can do over a period of perhaps fifteen years, before you stop learning anything useful.

So there were lessons in writing and basic arithmetic, and singing and formal dancing had an important role in creating a sense of community and cohesion. Beyond that, it is hard to know. It is generally thought that they didn’t do weapon combat in the early years but fighting with sticks is such a part of every child’s instinctive behaviour that I can’t believe it wasn’t at least a game that they played. So I put that in. There were ball games too, apparently, but I resisted the temptation of including one in the book. I’d have had to have made up some rules, as few have come down to us!

Olympic Sports

Sparta had a lot of success in the early Olympic competitions before the events became dominated by professionals with specialised diets. I have supposed that there was a designated training area and that wrestling was done by all the boys. Specialised events such as javelin and long jump were probably not so generally practised and it is chance that allows my hero, Lykos, to have lessons in the javelin. Throwing or stabbing with hoplite combat weapons would not have required great specialist skill, just strength.

Survival Techniques 

The other aspect of Spartan education was self-reliance. According to ancient sources, Spartan boys were kept hungry and encouraged to steal to supplement their diet. If they were caught they were severely  punished. The practicalities of this has always worried me. For one thing, surely, you would want your future warriors to be strong and well-nourished? To keep them permanently half-starved doesn’t seem the most sensible plan. And how far could they travel to steal? The local farms would only have so much edible produce easily available, and then only at particular times of the year. No one is suggesting they went off into town to steal from the markets.

I have gone my own way on this, imagining that there were periods set aside from their general routine when boys were sent off into the countryside to fend for themselves, like a boy-scout expedition. Potentially dangerous, of course, but without too many significant risks, and offering just the sort of opportunity for self-reliance that was apparently prized by the Spartans.

I also invented the game with the strips of cloth and the helmet. It is the sort of team game that they might have played to build group identity and ingenuity, and, to be honest, it suited the story. (In the back of my mind I think there was something similar with strips of cloth in the ancient world. If anyone can throw any light on this, please get in touch!)

The Limitations of the System

All in all, Spartan education was relatively balanced, but still very narrow by modern standards. Even the Spartans themselves seem to have been aware that more was needed as there is evidence that wealthier parents gave their sons additional training.

But what of the outside world? That was the problem, of course, for the whole Spartan system. It created warriors, it created a cohesive system for the elite, but it was hermetically sealed. Once Spartans crossed their borders, the limitations of their world-view were exposed. Then they were too often blunt and unsympathetic, as well as corrupt.

If you want to delve a little deeper into Spartan education and the mentality it produced, try my next blog - Shame and Success in Spartan Culture.

And if you have any thoughts on this one, please get in touch!

¹Ducat, Jean, et al. Spartan education: Youth and Society in the Classical Period, Classical Press of Wales, 2006, JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvvn9g2.14. Accessed 23 June 2026

A 'Shame' Culture

In 1951 Professor E.R. Dodds published a book called The Greeks and The Irrational¹, based on a series of lectures he gave at the University of California, Berkeley. Every now and then someone comes up with a new way of looking at the ancient world and this was an eye-opener. Instead of considering the ancient Greeks as progressing to an increasingly rationalistic view of the world, he showed that even in the Classical period there was a lot that was deeply irrational and disturbing.

In one of his lectures, he talks about the distinction between a ‘shame’ culture and a ‘guilt’ culture. In a ‘shame’ culture, in its simplest terms, it is the action that counts against you, not your motivation. In a ‘guilt’ culture, fault is more internalised and our private choices for action are much more important. In other words, in a shame culture it is all about how you are seen; in a guilt culture it is more about how you feel. Although Dodds was focussing on Athens and Greek Tragedy in his lecture, I think it helps a great deal in understanding how the Spartan mind worked to consider their society as, profoundly, a ‘shame’ culture.

Thermopylae and its losers

A good example of this is recounted by Herodotus who describes how one of the famous three hundred sent out to defend the pass at Thermopylae was unable to fight due to a serious eye infection. No fault in that, you might think, but on his return he was disgraced and could only redeem himself by fighting heroically to his death at the later Battle of Plataea. Another soldier who had been sent to deliver a message in Thessaly and thus also survived the Battle of Thermopylae was so humiliated when he came back to Sparta that he committed suicide (Herodotus Book VII, 229-232).

Election to an adult Mess

Consider now the purpose of Spartan education for the individual concerned. There are no exams to pass, no definitive mark of merit. The purpose is to be accepted as an adult into a common mess, an elite club of around fifteen fellow Spartans. One vote against you and you are rejected. Everything depends on how you are viewed by other Spartans, not necessarily for any particular skill or attribute, but for your ability to fit in. Reputation is, of course, important in any society, but in Sparta it is everything. (Family connections must also have been a major factor in selection, but even that was a matter of the family’s reputation.)

The need to fit in

A Spartan child, therefore, set out to achieve success by matching or excelling his peers in any given activity, as in any school, but also by conforming to the norm and being accepted into the group. Above all, he needed to avoid humiliation and ostracism. I was brought up in a boys’ boarding school, a relatively civilised one as it happened, that encouraged individuality and tolerated idiosyncrasies. Even so, on arrival at the age of twelve, the pressure to conform to the expectations of the other boys was profound. Instinctively I lost my midlands accent, learnt to swear 'like a trooper', and generally did my best to fit in. Not everyone had the knack. Some were isolated and unhappy; some even ran away. But, whatever the scars the experience of school may have caused, even these people could get their qualifications and move on, potentially to a happy and successful life. Not in Sparta!

The relationship between older and younger boys

Apart from having good relations with his peers, it helped for a younger boy to be taken under the wing of older one and this, apparently, was common practice, at least in the later period from which much of our information about Spartan education comes. How far the relationship between older and young boy had a sexual element is debatable. Paul Cartledge in his book The Spartans² describes it as ritualised pederasty but he goes on to point out that ‘sex was by no means the only or even the main object’. The older boy is the sponsor of the young one. Once he has chosen him, he will do his best to make sure he succeeds. His own reputation is on the line too. He will himself be humiliated if the younger boy fails in some way.

Lykos is a chosen one. In my story I have underplayed any sexual element, simply because it would cause an un-necessary tangle of responses in our modern world that would frankly have baffled the ancient Greeks. In any case, it isn’t important. It is the relationship that is set up that counts - a mutual dependence. In this scenario, the younger boys loyalty towards their ‘prefects’, as I have called them, makes perfect sense, but sets up an interesting dynamic when Lykos is faced with a conflicting loyalty to the state, to his Sparta. Of course, at his age, it is difficult for him to have any concept of the wider political picture. All he has ever known since the age of seven is school and those around him and it is not surprising that he chooses to stay loyal to the older boys until events finally bring a different perspective.

The price of failure

As for Aratos, he is ‘cursed’. (I chose the name because it has a double-edged meaning: both ‘prayed-for’ and ‘accursed’). He has no family connections in Sparta (or so it would seem) and he shows none of the physical prowess or stamina required to be a warrior. It isn’t his fault, of course, but that’s not the point.  He is an object of shame to all those around him and is himself ashamed to the point of despair.

It is easy to be shocked at the callous attitude of the children of Sparta’s barracks, but it seems to me that the instincts of school children in 21st Century Britain are not so very different. Certainly, our sense of shame is very strong when we are young and an inability to fit in or a failure in a public forum can still result in a stinging sense of shame that lasts a lifetime, even if it wasn’t ‘our fault’. The difference is that in our society we are educated in tolerance and encouraged to accept difference as a part of the human condition. Spartan society was much less forgiving. Why this should be, takes us to the heart of the political story of Sparta and will be the subject of a future blog.

        ¹ Dodds, Eric R. The Greeks and the Irrational. Berkeley: University of California Press 1951

      ² Cartledge Paul, The Spartans - An Epic History Macmillan 2002 p.64